The Roman Question

When you think of Italy, you of course think of Rome. Rome, known as the “Eternal City,” was not the eternal capital of Italy, however. For 1,394 years, Italy was a divided peninsula with various city states and petty kingdoms populating the peninsula. Greater European powers also fought over and captured whole swaths of the “boot” more times than we can breakdown in this article. It was not until the 1870 unification of Italy that Rome became the capital of the peninsula again for the first time since 476 CE. In this article we will outline the capture of Rome from the Papal States in 1870 and its effect on the Italian peninsula.

By the Western Roman Empire’s fragmentation in 476, Rome had already ceased to be what it once was and was a depopulated remnant. At its height, the city boasted a population of between 1-2 million people but was reduced to a mere 30,000 after the Imperial collapse. Rome would eventually recover due to the presence of the Catholic Church and the Popes calling it their home (for most of the Papal office’s history), with the city becoming the capital of the Papal States in 756 CE. The Papal States would continue to expand, grabbing territory in the modern Italian regions of Lazio, Marche, Umbria, and Emilia-Romagna. However, by the start of the 17th century, the Papal states started to erode with various European powers seizing chunks in their bid to dominate Italy. This eventually culminated in the dissolution of the Papal States in all but name by 1859, with only Rome and some surrounding territory remaining under temporal control of the Pope.

The new Kingdom of Italy, under the Sardinian house of Savoy and King Victor Emmanuel II, wished to crown its achievement of uniting the peninsula for the first time since the Roman Empire by making Rome their capital, but in their way was Pope Pius IX, who considered Rome his sovereign right and territory. The debate over Rome’s ownership became to be known as the Roman Question. This resulted in a standstill between the two factions as Italy did not want to storm Rome and oust the Pope, fearing a sharp religious backlash from its staunchly catholic population and an international public relations disaster. Additionally, a French garrison defended the city, preventing Italy from seizing it however this did not prevent the Kingdom from declaring in 1861 that Rome was its capital.

In 1870 the Franco-Prussian War erupted forcing Napoleon III to remove his troops from Rome, leaving an opportunity for Italy to seize the city. Fearing the backlash mentioned earlier of violently taking Rome from the Pope, King Victor Emmanuel II offered to “protect” the Pope in place of its previous French garrison, with the true aim of peacefully taking the city once Italian troops arrived. The Pope saw through this ruse and declined the offer of protection, causing Italy to formally declare war in September of 1870, besieging the city later that month. Although Pius IX knew that his greatly outnumbered could not successfully defend the city, he ordered his forces to put up some resistance to emphasize to the world that the Pope was not giving up Rome willingly. Pius IX did instruct his forces in their resistance however to not push back too hard in order to limit bloodshed on both sides, resulting in 12 dead amongst his men and 32 amongst the Italian forces. The city fell to Italian forces on September 20th, 1870, and the Pope entered a phase referred to as the “Prisoner in Rome.”

While a “prisoner” in Rome, the Pope confined himself to Vatican hill and the Apostolic Palace, still conducting diplomacy as if he was a sovereign. He further rejected any deal with the Italians to become an Italian subject or to negotiate any church holdings within the city away. This status existed until 1929, with the Pope refusing to leave Rome until then. The Lateran Treaty of 1929 ended this self-imposed house arrest, establishing Vatican hill as Vatican City, a wholly separate 17 sq mile nation from Italy and providing financial restitution to the Church for the seized territory of the Papal States, officially ending the “Roman Question.”

Today, Vatican City is the smallest nation on earth and is the smallest by population, with only around 750 residents. The Pope remains head of state of Vatican City and an easy peace/relationship has been maintained by Italy and Vatican City ever since, with the Pope giving up sovereign claim of Rome outside his territory.

The Sinking of the USS Maine

If you are not American, you may not be familiar with the Spanish-American war and a principal cause, the sinking of a US warship, the USS Maine. If you are American, there is a term that goes together with the sinking of the ship, “yellow journalism” that may immediately spring to mind. We will be exploring both the sinking of the Maine and the impact the press had on the US government’s 1898 decision to declare war on Spain in the aftermath of the sinking.

In the late 19th century, the United States was mirroring behavior of western European empires but with a focus on its own hemisphere, specifically intervening in affairs in Mexico and other parts of Latin America. This behavior was an extension of the American concept of “Manifest Destiny” or the belief that the United States should and would dominate the North American continent from east to west coast. Once the western frontier was “won” those Americans turned their focus beyond the North American coastline and focused on the Pacific, Central, and South America, including countries and territories like the Philippines, Cuba, Puerta Rico, and Hispaniola. In their way however was the Spanish Empire, who controlled large chunks of the Caribbean and swaths of the Pacific. At the same time, the American press industry was undergoing a dramatic shift. Within the American constitution, the first amendment protects and enshrines press editorial freedom, allowing news corporations to be creative in their delivery of the news if the information being delivered to readers is not libelous towards the subjects of the stories, and in the late 19th century, newspapers started to push beyond the limits of what is factual news. William Randolph Hurst and Joseph Pulitzer, both newspaper magnates, became known for delivering exaggerated, solacious, fabricated, distorted, or sensationalized stories and headlines in their respectively owned papers. This reporting behavior became known as “yellow journalism” in America. Today it is still very much an active practice in use by tabloid journals and magazines in the US, the UK, and around the world.

The Spanish Empire was a dying power in the 19th century, having been heavily weakened by centuries of sustained conflict with other European powers. Further eroding the power of the empire was a century of territorial instability with civil wars and overseas rebellion, crippling the Spanish economy. Lastly, the Spanish now had to contend with a burgeoning power threatening its interests, the United States. With America’s focus on expanding power beyond its borders and Cuba being only 90 miles away from the US mainland, it became a natural target of American expansionists. In 1895 Cuban revolutionaries launched an armed rebellion against the Spanish, kicking off the Cuban War of Independence. This rebellion was not the first, as Cuba had been in a state of on and off rebellion since the 1860s and garnered the sympathy of Americans, who only a century before had shaken off their own colonial overlords. Additionally, American economic interests were tied to Cuba, as they were a leading sugar importer to the US, with increased American government and economic concern growing as the instability in Cuba continued. Further damning against the Spanish was their use of concentration camps in this war and previous Cuban uprisings (the first use of this term and type of internment) and exploited by the American press for attention grabbing headlines. The United States under President William McKinley, attempt to act as a 3rd party negotiator to end the conflict, but the Spanish would promise reforms and routinely fail to deliver on them, trying the patience of the United States. The American public began to believe that war between the United States and Spain was justified to protect American interests and to aid the Cuban cause.

As the Spanish cracked down in Cuba and no end to the conflict in sight, in 1898 the American government dispatched a cruiser, USS Maine, to Cuban waters to “protect American citizens and interests.” This also served as a signal to the Spanish that the United States was willing to use naval and military power to get their way. The Maine arrived in Havana harbor on January 25th, where it stayed until suffering a large explosion on the 15th of February. The explosion ignited a powder store for the ship’s guns, nearly vaporizing one third of the ship. The explosion killed 261 sailors and marines out of the 355 total crew, only leaving 16 uninjured of the surviving 94.

Conflicting information immediately came out regarding the cause of the explosion, with President McKinley first being told it was an accident, along with numerous high ranking naval and civilian officials being told the same. One initial belief was that coal fire ignited the ship, causing the explosion and this was communicated to the Department of the Navy. Although a different narrative quickly overtook this, that a Spanish mine had caused the sinking of the Maine. The “yellow” press seized upon the perceived Spanish offensive action narrative, printing weeks’ worth of sensationalized headlines demanding revenge for the American deaths or reimbursing the US for its loss by granting Cuba independence. The public, after being bombarded by the overly biased headlines and coupled with often exaggerated news of concentration camps and Spanish atrocities (concentration camps and atrocities by the Spanish did occur but the American press often fabricated or exaggerated key details or incidents), advocated for war between America and Spain. War was declared on Spain by the United States two months later, with the rallying cry of “Remember the Maine! To hell with Spain” entering the American lexicon, joining “Remember the Alamo” as one of the most memorable phrases in US 19th century history, being taught in American textbooks to this day. The press and those with economic interests in Cuba got exactly what they desired, forcing a confrontation for their own interests by utilizing bias and misinformation. The Spanish were quickly defeated and humiliated in the subsequent war, with the conflict lasting just 16 weeks. In victory, the US took possession of Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam, with Puerto Rico and Guam still being held as US territories to this day.

The United States and Spain each conducted their own investigations to understand what happened in the interim between the sinking and war, with Spain concluding that an internal explosion - likely from a coal bunker caused the sinking, with the US concluding that an external force, like a torpedo or mine was the cause.

But do we know the actual cause of the explosion over 120 years later? Numerous investigations have been launched to uncover the true cause of the explosion, as the naval mine or torpedo narrative is greatly disputed. The initial US inquiry in 1898 used testimony from the surviving crew and wreck divers to conclude that the ship was struck by a naval mine that ignited its forward magazine, as many survivors reported hearing two explosions. But this study had detractors within the navy who argued that a coal fire was the cause. In 1911, the Maine was raised from Havana harbor in a large operation where she was studied before being sunk again. This investigation concluded that an external explosion had indeed caused damage to the Maine and likely detonated its powder magazine. This investigation also was able to recover most of the sailors who went down with the ship and intern them in the US national military cemetery, Arlington. However, in 1974 another investigation led by US Admiral Hyman Rickover using photographs and wreckage pieces, with a book being released of the Rickover team’s findings in 1976. This study concluded that the explosion was not caused by an external explosion, but instead was caused by an internal explosion due to a buildup of methane and other gasses produced by the US Navy’s switch over to a more volatile coal type, igniting the magazine. To further muddle the investigation into the Maine’s sinking, National Geographic conducted an investigation of their own in 1998, using computer graphics for the first time. Their investigation was inconclusive, with differing opinions amongst the members as to the cause. The NatGeo team concluded that a small mine COULD have caused the blast but that an explosion due to coal gas build up could also be the cause. In 2002, an investigation by the US television network, the Discovery Channel, concluded that a coal bunker fire and explosion was the cause, with a design flaw in the metal separating the coal bunker from the magazine showing that a fire could have penetrated the barrier and led to a massive explosion.

The cause of the sinking of the Maine, whilst still disputed to this day, may never be fully known but the ship’s sinking and the American press’ sensationalism of the incident is absolutely a main cause of the Spanish-American war. Although ensuring protection of editorial integratory and news reporting is key in today’s 21st century America and the UK, looking back on the press’ actions around the Maine’s sinking and the subsequent US declaration of war provides us with one of history’s greatest example of government policy being affected by public sentiment and opinion being galvanized by a biased press.