Elphinstone’s Retreat
In 1839, Britain did what any self-respecting empire does - invade Afghanistan. This invasion was part of what is euphemistically called “The Great Game” between the British Empire and the Russian Empire. The Great Game was the world’s first (modern) Cold War, and had all the hallmarks of the later 20th century version including copious amounts of spies, proxy wars, diplomatic threats, and using unaligned countries as their playground. One of these unaligned countries, Afghanistan, lay between the Russian Empire and British India, so in order to shore up their defense of India, the British invaded Afghanistan due to the belief that at any moment the Russians would pour across the border and use Afghanistan as an invasion route to India. The British goal was to secure a friendly and cooperative state in neighboring Afghanistan as to create a buffer state between the two feuding empires.
During what is now known as the First Anglo-Afghan War (the first in a trilogy of wars), the British East India Company (EIC) invaded Afghanistan from India with around 20,000 soldiers. These 20,000 were a mix of British soldiers and Indian Sepoys, or Indians in service of the EIC. The EIC is different than a modern company, as it was essentially state controlled, directly governed large land holdings in Southeast Asia, and had its own armed forces (at times actually larger than the British Army). Initially in 1839, the British were somewhat welcomed into Kabul, by the leader of the city, Dost Mohammed. but the British began to distrust him and suspected he was playing both sides. As a result of this distrust, the British used their army to oust Dost Mohammed and replaced him with more friendly, yet ineffective, Shah Shuja, and mostly withdrew from the area, believing their mission accomplished. However, they did leave behind two brigades and two political aids to guide the Shah, Sir William Macnaghten and Sir Alexander Burns. In 1841, with tensions flamed by the Shah’s rule and the British occupation, a full rebellion in Kabul erupted with Macnaghten and Burns being murdered by the local populace. The two British brigades were still intact in a fortified camp outside the main city but were completely surrounded. By December of ’41, the British were able to negotiate a safe retreat from Kabul for their surrounded forces and their families (not just wives but children as well) as well as any camp followers and personnel. This negotiated agreement meant that the British had to leave behind the sick and wounded, all their gunpowder reserves, their newest muskets, and most of their artillery, but would have an Afghan escort provided by the leader of the uprising against the Shah, Akbar Khan. Additionally, the Afghans would provide fuel and food to the British to aid in the cross of the snowy Hindu Kush mountains. In total, around 16,000 people were being evacuated in a retreat lead by General William Elphinstone, departing on the 6th of January, 1842, for the British garrison in Jalalabad, around 90 miles away.
The retreat encountered hostility almost immediately, despite the agreement of safe evacuation, with the rearguard encountering hostile fire after leaving the fortified camp. Once the Afghans hostile to the British entered the fortified camp, they massacred everyone left behind and set fire to the structures. The promised escort by Akbar Khan’s forces never arrived nor did the aid they promised. Elphinstone resisted calls from his subordinate officers to turn back and take control of the fortress in Kabul but Elphinstone refused and the march to Jalalabad continued. On the second day of the march, the long column of soldiers and civilians began encountering sniper fire from the hillsides, with the British soldiers being ineffective in returning fire as they were hindered by the slow movement of the column and the chaos of the civilians trying to seek shelter from the snipers. To further complicate matters, the British engaged in several skirmishes with the Afghans resulting in the capture or destruction of most of the remaining British artillery, leaving the British with just three artillery pieces.
Akbar Khan met with Elphinstone on the afternoon of the second day to say that the British were at fault for his escort failing to appear as they left too soon and that the British should wait while he negotiates their safe passage through the pass out of Kabul. By this point, the column had only traveled 6 miles. Despite evidence of Khan’s treachery, Elphinstone agreed to wait and move slowly. On the third day, it became obvious, even to Elphinstone that Akbar Khan betrayed the British and stalled to allow the Afghans time to set up more effective ambushes along the passes. Progress was slow despite being constantly under musket fire and by the end of 9th of January (the fourth day) and only 40 miles, 3,000 people had been killed. Most of these were killed by sniper fire, skirmishes, frozen to death, or committed suicide, but some were massacred by the Afghans after they fell wounded and unable to continue. Frostbite set in for the survivors and the freezing conditions rendered most military equipment unusable. British cohesion fell apart and desertions began to occur, with some few hundred Indian troops attempting to return to Kabul but they too were massacred and the survivors enslaved. A large group of the soldier’s wives and families were captured and promised protection by Abkar Khan, but instead the wives of the Indian Sepoys were all murdered along with any Indian servants captured, leaving only white prisoners alive. Elphinstone’s psyche collapsed and he stopped giving orders, he just kept silently moving forward atop his horse.
By the end of the 11th of January (the sixth day), it is estimated that only around 200 soldiers remained and a fierce rearguard action began under the command of Brigadier General John Shelton at the village of Jagadalak. The resistance was so fierce that the Afghans requested Elphinstone and John Shelton to begin negotiations with Akbar Khan. Elphinstone and Shelton dined with Khan but quickly realized they had actually been captured, with the Afghans refusing them the ability to return to their men. On the 12th of January (the seventh day), the column moved forward despite losing Shelton and Elphinstone and suffering 12,000 casualties, in the dead of night to limit their exposure to sniper fire. However, the remains of the column found themselves blocked in a by a barrier erected at the narrow pass, with most people being shot as they scaled the barrier. Small groups survived crossing the barrier but most were either cut down shortly after or killed as they attempted to escape, with very few of these small groups being able to make it. Scattered and isolated, these surviving groups attempted to reach Jalalabad by any means. The largest of these groups made a heroic last stand at the village of Gandamak, despite being either exhausted or wounded and lacking proper ammunition and working equipment to make a survivable defense. Refusing offers to surrender, this group of 20 officers and 45 men, were mostly all killed after an intense series of attacks and waves of men rushing their position. Of the 65 men, only 1 officer, 1 sergeant, and 7 privates were captured.
On the 13th of January (the final and eighth day), a lone officer rode into Jalalabad. This lone survivor, Assistant Surgeon William Brydon described his ordeal to reach Jalalabad, having survived multiple ambushes that wounded himself and his horse. When asked what happened to the army, Brydon famously replied with “I am the army.” Over the coming weeks, Brydon would be the only European officer to arrive from the column although a number of Sepoys arrived after surviving by hiding themselves in the mountains.
Britain was absolutely humiliated and shocked by the loss of Elphinstone’s column, with immediate calls for revenge and retribution against Akbar Khan and Kabul. The news was so shocking to the EIC that the man in charge of it, Lord Auckland, suffered a stroke. A punitive expedition marched into Kabul later in 1842, leveling the Grand Bazaar and any large building in Kabul, rescuing or securing hostages (including the European soldier’s wives), and attacked the forces of Akbar Khan where they were able. In all, only over 2,000 people from the column would be rescued from captivity, escaped, or were released. Elphinstone himself died a captive of Akbar Khan in April of 1842 and his leadership during the evacuation has been thoroughly panned in the 182 years since. Akbar Khan took control of Afghanistan until being ousted by Dost Mohmmed in 1843, and died of cholera in 1847.